HISTORY OF
SCIENCE
Compiled by: Ichwan P.Syamsuddin
(Used for personal entertainment)
A. INTRODUCTION
Philosophical thinking is heavily influenced by the environment.
But basically a good philosophy in the West, India, and China emerged
from a religious nature. In Greece the myth, in India with his book
Vedic (Hindu Religion) and in China with Confusiusnya. In Western myth
can disappear altogether and the ratio prominent, whereas in Indian
philosophy can never escape the parent in this case Hinduism. Division
of the periodization of Western philosophy is Ancient times, Middle
Ages, Modern era, and the Present. Flow emerging influence on the
thinking and philosophy is positivism, Marxism, Existentialism,
Phenomenology, Pragmatism, and NeoKantianianisme and Neo-tomisme.
Division of the periodization of ancient Chinese philosophy is,
assimilation era, Neo-Konfusionisme era and modern times. The main theme
in Chinese philosophy is a matter of humanity (jen). Periodization
divisions of Indian philosophy is the period of the Vedas, epic, sutras,
and Scholastic. In Indian philosophy that matters is how people can be
friends with the world not to dominate the world. As for the Islamic
philosophy there are only two periods, namely Mutakallimin period and
the period of Islamic philosophy. For the history of the development of
science in the discussion here refers to philosophical thinking in the
West.
The period of Greek philosophy is a very important period in the
history of human poradaban because at that time there is a change of
mindset human myths become more rational. The mindset of those myths is the mindset of the people who rely heavily on myth to menjelaskari natural phenomena,
The mindset change seems simple, but its implications are not
simple because during this natural feared and shunned then approached
even exploited. man that was once passive in the face of natural
phenomena become more proactive and creative, so nature as object of
research and assessment. Of the process is then developed from the womb
philosophy of science, that eventually we enjoy in the form of
technology. Because the period of the development of Greek philosophy is
the point to enter the new civilization of mankind.
Thus, the development of science as it is not directly a sudden, it
happens gradually, evolutionary. to understand the historical
development of science would have to be through the division or
classification periodically, for each period show a certain
characteristic in the development of science. Development of thinking
theoretically always refers to the Greek civilization. Periodization of
the development of civilization starts here and ends in contemporary
Greece. (Drs.Surajiyo; case 80)
B. Ancient Period (15 BC – 7 S1V)
Basically humans in ancient times is to accept all the events as
fact. Though carried out observations, data collection and so on, but
they just accept gathering only. The facts just processed sekada rn yes,
only to find the same problem, the common denominator, and that
is perhaps unintentionally, without purpose. If there is any assertion
or statement, then the statement is always associated with the gods and
mystical. Therefore astronomical observations transformed into
astrology. observations made by humans in ancient times, who accept
the facts as brute factr or on the face value, suggests that humans in
ancient times still had a level just received, both in attitude and in
thought (receptive attitude and receptive mind) (Santoso, 1977: 27).
Development of human knowledge and culture in ancient times can
diruntut far back, even before the 15th century BC, especially in the
stone age. Knowledge at that time was directed at practical knowledge,
ie knowledge of direct benefit to the community. When the start of the
stone age can not be determined with certainty, but experts found the
stone age lasted for millions of years.
As the name implies, the stone age, at the time of human use
stones as tools. This is evident from the findings of such an ax used to
cut splitting. In addition to using the tools made of stone men of
that age are also using animal bones. Tools made from animal bones,
among others, used functions like a needle to sew. The discovery of
the objects of the relics in the stone age is a proof that human
civilized creatures able to be creative to overcome the challenges of
the natural surroundings.
Along with the development time, the objects used were making
progress and improvement. The discovery was made based on observation,
and may proceed with trials without foundation, obey and error process.
Finally, from a process of trial and error, which takes hundreds
or even thousands of years of refinement making this happen development
tools that are used, so that people find the manufacture of good tools,
the result would be a stronger and better. Thus tersusunlah knowledge know-how. In the form of know-how that is findings are passed on to subsequent generations.
Cultural development occurs more quickly after man discovered fire
and use in everyday life. With the use of fire to keep warm, human
dependence on the climate becomes less fire then also be used for
cooking and equipment in the hunt. At a more advanced age later, meaning
the fire becomes more important.: What Knowledge about process heating
and melting paved the way on making a tool of copper, bronze and iron.
In history for example, iron equipment used in Iraq the first time the
15th century BC ( Brouwer, 1982:6).
More rapid development of knowledge occurred a few thousand years
before Christ. This event occurs when humans are in the stone age youth.
during this time began the great revolution in the way humans live.
Humans began to recognize the farm, know the life lived (persistent),
build a home, preserving foods, start irrigation, and began to raise
animals. During that period has also emerged the ability to write, read
and count. With the ability to write, several important events can be
recorded and can then be read by other people so it will be more rapidly
deployed. Numeracy skills are also very supportive of the development
of knowledge as a record of an event to be more complete with the
relatively more precise data and more obvious.
According to Anna Poedjiadi (1987:28-32) the development of
knowledge in ancient times has been seen in some nations, such as Egypt,
Babylonia, China and India. There is a mutual relationship between the
development of thinking influence in the region with other regions.
Manufacture of bronze tools in Egypt 17th century BCE to give effect to
that applied in the development of Europe. The Chinese 15th century BC
have also developed techniques Dinastii equipment at the time of the
Shang bronze, while iron equipment as a weapon of war has been known in
the 5th century BC on the Chin Dynasty. Surnbangsih India provide huge
in the development of the mathematical discovery of the decimal number
system . Buddhism was adopted by king Asoka, the third emperor In
Mautya, has donated a number system became the starting point in the
development of the number systems of modern times: India players even
have invented the wheel for the potter in the 30th century BC.
Unfortunately the advanced civilization that went extinct in the 20th
century BC, whether caused by natural disasters or by war.
In general it can be stated that the knowledge in ancient times
marked by the presence of five faculties, namely (1) knowledge based on
experience (empirical knowledge (2) knowledge by experience it is
accepted as fact by the receptive attitude of mind, and if there
is a description of the facts, then information that is mystical,
magical and religious, (3) the ability to find the natural alphabet and
number system has been in development of human thought to the level of
abstraction, (4) the ability to write, count, draw up a calendar based
on the synthesis of abstraction is done, and (5 ) ability to predict
physical events on the basis of previous events that have occurred, such
as solar and lunar eclipses (Santoso, 1977: 27-28)
C. Ancient Greece (7 BC – 6 AD)
Ancient Greece is seen as the golden age of philosophy, because at
this time people have the freedom to express ideas or opinions. Greece
at that time regarded as a repository of science and philosophy, as the
Greeks at that time did not believe lagii mythologies. The Greeks also
can not receive experience based on receptive attitude attitude
(An attitude of take it for granted), but cultivate the attitude of an
inquiring attitude (an attitude which pleased critically investigate
something). Later attitude that is the forerunner to the growth of
modern science. Critical attitude is making the Greeks appear as famous
thinkers of all time. Several philosophers of the period, among others,
Thales, Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
Ancient times include the time of the pre-Socratic philosophy in
Greece. The characters are known as the first philosopher or natural
philosopher. They look for the parent element (arche) is considered the
origin of all things. According to Thales that water arche, arche
Anaximandros argues that `the infinite ‘(to apeiron). Anaximenes
it was air arche, arche Pythagoras’s numbers, and the arches Heraklitos
fire, He also believes that everything is kept flowing (panta RHEI).
Parmenedes said that everything was still not moving. (Lasiyo and
Yowono, 1985: 52)
1. Golden Age of Greek philosophy
At the time of Pericles Athens was led by a philosophy of
political activities can thrive. There is a class of people who are good
at speaking (rethorika) called the sophists. They teach science to
young people. the object of the investigation is no longer natural but
man, as said by Pythagoras, humans are size for all and sundry. This
was opposed by Socrates saying that the really good and is seen as
objective values are held in high esteem by everyone. Due to these
words of Socrates was sentenced to death.
Socrates thought the results can be found in his Plato. In his
philosophy Plato said: reality entirely distributed the two worlds are
only open for five senses and the world is only open to our ratio. The
first world is the physical world and the other world of ideas.
The opinion criticized by Aristotle to say that there are humans
that are concrete “ideas man ‘is not in fact”. Philosopher Aristotle was
a realist, and his contributions to the development of science is huge.
Donations are still used in science is about abstraction, namely
rational activity in which a person gains knowledge. According to
Aristotle, there are three kinds of abstraction, the abstraction of
physical, mathematical abstraction, and metaphysical.
Who want to capture the notion of abstraction by removing
individual elements to achieve the quality is the physical abstraction.
While the abstraction at which the subject captures elements
quantitative with qualitative elements to get rid of so-called
mathematical abstraction. Abstraction in which one captures the
essential elements to the exclusion of other elements called
metaphysical abstraction. (Harry Hamersma, 1983)
Aristotle’s well-known theory is about the material and shape. Both
are metaphysical principles, the principle that the material is not
specified, while the form is the principle that counts. This theory is
known as Hylemorfisme. (K. Bertens ,1988:11-16)
2. Helinistis and Roman period.
In the days of Alexander the Great has developed a transnational
culture called Helinistis culture, because culture is not limited to
Greece again in the cities of Greece’s wrote, but includes also all the
conquered territory of Alexander the Great. In the field of philosophy,
Athens remains an important center, but also develops other intellectual
centers, especially the city of Alexandria. Roman expansion eventually
extends to Greek territory, it does not mean denouement Greek culture
and philosophy, because the Roman Empire was the door opened wide to
accept Greek cultural heritage.
In the field of philosophy still growing, but at that time there was no philosopher who truly great except Plotinus.
At this time it appears some alira n follows.:
a. Stoisisme
According to this understanding the universe is determined by the
powers called Logos. Therefore, all events take place under conditions
that can not be avoided.
b. Epikurisme
Everything made up of atoms kept in motion. Humans would be happy
if you recognize this world and the arrangement should not be afraid of
the gods.
c. Skepticism
They think that the field of theoretical man is not able to reach the truth. Their general attitude is skepticism
d. Eklitisisme
A general trend is taking various elements of philosophy from other streams without being able to achieve a genuine thought.
e. Neo Platonism
Understand who revived the philosophy of Plato. Character is
Plotinus. The entire philosophy revolves around God as one. Everything
comes from the `one` and want to come back to Him. (K. Bertens
,1988:16-18)
D. Middle Ages (6 M -15 M)
Middle Ages is a period of time that has to do with the history of
the nations of continental Europe. Traditional understanding of medieval
associated with the development of knowledge is a long period that
starts from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD to the
emergence of the Renaissance in Italy.
Middle Ages (Midle Age) is characterized by a considerable
influence of the Catholic religion and cultural development of the
empire at that time. In general, the Roman occupied with religious
matters without regard to worldly issues and science. In those appearing
in the field of science is the theologians. The scientists in this
period almost all theologians are so scientific activity associated with
religious activity. In other words, scientific activities geared to
support religious truth. Motto that applies to the science of this
period was Ancilla Theologiae, man of religion. Therefore, since the
fall of the Western Roman Empire until about the 10th century, in Europe
there is no activity in the field of science that can be put forward
that spectacular. This period is also known as the dark ages.
Toward the end of the middle of the century, some progress is
visible in the community in the form of inventions. The discoveries
include updates use plows farmers can reduce energy use. Started
waterwheel used to grind corn.
In the 13th century there was also progress and updates in the
field of shipbuilding and seafaring navigation. Ship supplies to make
progress so that the ship can be used more effectively. Navigation tools
were making progress anyway. Began to use the compass in Europe. Skill
in making textiles and leather processing to make progress after a
person familiar with the cotton spinner tool.
Another important progress during the middle of the century is the
skill in papermaking. This skill came from China and was brought to
Spain by the Muslims. In addition, people also have to know the printing
and manufacture of explosives.
Unlike the situation in Europe is experiencing the dark ages, in
the Islamic world at the same time experienced a golden age of science
and technology. Civilization of the Islamic world, especially in the
time of the Umayyads had found a way of astronomical observations in the
7th century AD, eight centuries before Galileo Galilei and Copernicus
did. In the golden age of Islamic culture is also done translations,
various works of Greece, and even the caliph Al-Ma’mun had established
the House of Wisdom (House of Wi s dom) on a bad to-9 M.
Development of science and technology in the Islamic world is
rapidly made possible by the continuous observation and recording
regularly as well as the encouragement and assistance of the kings who
ruled. Thus for the first time in history, three important factors of politics, religion and science, are on one hand, the king or sultan.
This situation is very advantageous further development of science. As
long as 600-700 years of culture and science advances remain on the
nations who are Muslims.
According to Slamet Iman Santoso (1997:64) the Islamic scholar
donations can be classified in three ways, namely: (1) translate the
relics of the Greeks and distribute it in such a way that knowledge is
the basis for progress in the development of the Western world until
now, (2) extend the observations in the field of medical science,
medicine, astronomy, chemistry, earth science, and botany, and (3)
affirm the decimal system and the basics of algebra.
Some people who made a major contribution in the development of
knowledge and technology in the Islamic world such as A1 Khwarizmi, Omar
Khayam, Jabir Ibn Hayan, Al-Razi, Ali Ibn Sina, Al-Idrisi and Ibn
Khaldun.
Muhammad Ahmad AL Khwarizmi’s algebra book compiled in the year 825
AD, which became a standard book several centuries in Europe. He also
wrote a book about ordinary calculation (arithmetics). The book is to
pave the way in Europe to use the decimal method, which replaces the
writing in Roman numerals. Khwarizmi luga has introduced two cubic
equation in algebra.
Jabir Ibn Hayan (720-800 AD) held many experiments, including that
on ktistalisasi, dissolving, sublimation, and reduction. In addition to
conducting experiments, he also wrote, among others, about the process
of making steel, metal refining, gives color to skin and fabric, how to
make fabric waterproof, making way for hair dye. He also writes about
the ink manufacturing, glass making, how to concentrate acetic acid by
distillation. Mengeni elements He found a metal or mineral that
consists of two essential elements that mercury and sulfur with a wide
range of composition. different metals or minerals due to the
arrangement of different elements.
In the emerging field of medicine known names such as Abu Bakr
Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi or in Western countries known as razes
(850-923 AD) and Ibn Sina or Avicenna (980-1037 AD). Razes very much to
write a book, in antaranya100 books on medicine, 33 books on natural
science, including alchemy, ll books on mathematics and astronomy, and
more than 45 books on philosophy and theology. One of the results of his
work is a medical encyclopedia titled continens. Meanwhile Ibn Sina j u ga wrote books on medicine, named Al-, Q anun.
Books became standard in medical science books in Europe up to ± 1650.
(Santoso, 1997: 63). Additionally Abu’1 Qasim or Abu’1 Chassis wrote a
medical encyclopedia, which include reviewing, surgery and shows the equipment used in that day {± in 1013).
Ibn Rushd or Averoes (1126-1198 AD) a medical expert who translated
and commented on the works of Aristotle. From the writings of Ibn Rushd
followed proved that evolutionism flow, ie flow believes that
everything in the world was not created suddenly and in a state of
completion, but everything happens through development, to finally
incarnated in a completed state.
Other figures were also instrumental in the development of science
knowledge in the Islamic world, especially in the field of geography is
Al-Idrisi (1100-1166 AD). He has made 70 dikenall map of the area at
that time to be delivered to the kingdom of King Roger II of Sicily.
The realm of social science, in the world of Islam is the name of
Ibn Khaldun (1332 -1406 AD), whose full name is Abu Zayd Abdal-Rahman
ibn Muhammad ibn Khaldun al-Hadrami. He
is an expert on the history, politics, sociology, and economics, he is
often regarded sebagii pioneering founder of the social sciences and
sociology. Her work is a famous book called A1-Muqaddimah. In his book,
he discusses the development of society and changes in society. As the
inventor of the science of society - a new, Ibn Khaldun tried
hard to be objective in describing the community rather than finding a
cure for the “disease” of society (Baali, 1989:191).
In the view of Ibn Khaldun, social phenomena and laws to follow
certain patterns, and by itself will result in certain consequences as
well. It is said that the social laws not only have on individuals, but on all people. Social
laws will apply equally to the public, although a separate space and
time: O l er because it h u kum-law was not influenced by anyone. A leader can not improve social conditions, that does not have the support of the community.
As the foundation stone of sociology, Ibn Khaldun uses many methods
and theories for m enjelaskan factors that exist in society. Her l
Mass, colonized people will imitate colonizing nation, because he felt
that the victory due to excellence, both technical and institution, and
it should be followed so that the colonized also rriendapatkan success.
Principal ideas of Ibn Khaldun te r lies on `asabiyah or social
solidarity into human nature that can not live alone. Humans are social
beings, and therefore required a bond in the form of the state. Social
solidarity is very strong in the nomadic community. State can be formed
and be strong on the basis of this solidarity, but once formed bonds of
solidarity diminished, because of the power that must be obeyed. Thus
the goal of solidarity is power.
E: Renaissance (14 M -17 M)
Renaissance revival era is marked as free thought from religious
dogmas. Renaissance is the time of transition when medieval culture
began to turn into a modern culture. This is the man in the days of man
who misses free thought. Humans want to achieve progress on the results
of their own efforts, not based on divine intervention. M u il discovery
of modern science ‘has been initiated in the Renaissance. Science
progresses in this period is the field of astronomy. Famous figures like
Roger Bacon, Copernicus, Johannes Keppler, and Galileo Galilei. Here
are excerpts of the thinking of the philosophers u fil.
l. Roger Bacon, argues that the experience (empirical) became the
main base for the initial and final exams for all of science.
Mathematics is a necessary condition to yield all knowledge.
2.Copernicus, says that the earth and all planets around the sun,
so the sun at the center (heliosentririsme). This opinion is contrary to
the general opinion from Hipparahus and Ptolemy who think that the
earth as the center of the universe (geosentrisme).
3, Johannes Keppler, find three laws Brahe melengkapii previous investigations, namely:
a. That the motion of the celestial body was not moving to follow
the trajectory cir cl e, but it follows the motion of an elliptical
trajectory. Elliptical orbit of all the planets.
b. At the same time, a link between the planet and the sun always crosses the plane of the same size.
c. In mathematical calculations proved that if the average distance
of two planets A and B with the sun is X and Y, while the time for
orbital meliintasi respectively P and Q, then P2: Q2 X3: Y3.
4. Galileo Galilei, make a telescope that most of the time and
space to observe some events directly. He discovered several events
important in the field of astronomy. He saw that the planets Venus and
Mercury show changes as the moon, so he concluded that the planets does
not emit its own light, but only reflects light from the sun (Rizal
Mustansyir, 1996)
F. Modern Age (17 -19 M IV)
The modern era is characterized by a variety of scientific
discoveries in the field. Development of science in the modern era is
already initiated since the Renaissance. Such as Rene Descartes, known
as the father figure of modern philosophy. Rene Descartes was also a
mathematician. Discoveries in science is a system of coordinates.
Additionally at this time there are also other philosophers such as:
Isaac Newton, Darwin Caharles.
G. Contemporary Period (20th century onwards)
Among the special sciences discussed by philosophers, physics
occupies the highest position. According to Trout (in Riza1 Mustansyir,
et al., 2001) is seen as a fundamental physical science subject material
contains elements which form the fundamental nature of the universe. He also pointed out that historically the relationship between physics with philosophy seen in two ways. Firstly,
philosophical discussion about the methods of physics, and in view of
the substantial interaction between the physics (for example: on the
matter, the power, the concept of space and time). Secondly,
teaching traditional philosophy that answers the phenomenon of material,
power, space, and time. Thus, from the outset there was a close
relationship between philosophy and physics.
Physicist famous 20th century was Albert Einstein. He claimed that
nature is not finite and not infinite, but it also does not change the
status of totality or are static over time. Einstein believed in the
eternity of matter. This means that the universe is eternal, or in other
words did not recognize the nature of creation. Dii side theory of
physics, the theory of the universe, and others, Contemporary Period is
characterized by the discovery of a variety of advanced technology.
Communications and information technology, including the one that is
progressing very rapidly. Ranging from the invention of computers, the
various satellite communications, the internet, and so on. Other
disciplines are also progressing rapidly, resulting in a sharper
scientific specialization. Contemporary scientists know little things,
but in depth. Medical science is getting sharper in the subspecialty or
specialists and super-specialists, as well as other disciplines. In
addition to the trend toward specialization, another trend is the
synthesis between disciplines with one another, so that the resulting
new field such as biotechnology, which today is known as cloning
technology. (Rizal Mustansyir, et al., 2001)
